Astaxanthin

 

Overview

Astaxanthin, a naturally occurring carotenoid, is a reddish pigment found principally in seafood (lobsters, salmon, shrimp, and some plants). Astaxanthin provides free radical protection against oxidative stress. Humans are unable to manufacture astaxanthin and, therefore, it must be found in the diet. Most supplemental astaxanthin is produced by the microalgae Hematococcus pluvialis.

As a carotenoid and an antioxidant, astaxanthin has been tested and used for many diseases including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, cardiovascular disease (heart disease, stroke), eye health (macular degeneration) and as a cancer preventative. It is also used directly in the skin for sun protection and to help with aging.

Chemistry

Unlike many other carotenoids, astaxanthin is not converted into vitamin A in the liver.[1] After digestion, the entire molecule becomes incorporated into both low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and then is distributed throughout the body.[2]

A single 10-mg dose can persist in the blood for 24 hours and a 100-mg dose for 76 hours.[3] Lower doses, (1 mg per day) eventually increase blood levels when taken for four weeks.[4]

Dosage

Dosage of astaxanthin in clinical trials range from 1 milligram to 40 milligrams a day (most use somewhere between 6-12 milligrams/day).[5]

Research Review

Numerous research studies have demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of astaxanthin. Astaxanthin has been investigated in certain cancers, cardiovascular disease, diabetic nephropathy, diabetes, eye and skin diseases, male infertility, and others.[6],[7]

Oxidative Stress: Studies suggest that oxidative stress and free radicals may be involved in many human diseases including heart disease, cancers, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, chronic fatigue, and aging. Astaxanthin has been studied in human and other trials to reduce oxidative stress as well as DNA damage biomarkers.

  • Astaxanthin supplementation was investigated in overweight and obese patients (N=23). In a randomized, double-blind study. Patients were randomized to receive either 5 or 20 milligrams once daily for three weeks. Oxidative stress biomarkers were assessed at baseline and at each successive week interval. Both doses reduced oxidative stress by the end of the study period.[8]
  • Young volunteers (average age 21.5 years) were randomly chosen to receive either placebo, 2 milligrams, or 8 milligrams of astaxanthin a day for eight weeks. Those supplemented with astaxanthin (both 2 and 8 milligram) had reduced DNA damage biomarkers and C-reactive protein levels; there were no differences between supplemented groups.[9]

Skin: Some preliminary data has suggested that supplementation with astaxanthin, both topically and orally, may help improve skin conditions (reduce wrinkles, water loss, elasticity), but more studies need to be performed to confirm the effect.

  • Two human clinical trials were performed in one study. The first, an open-label, non-controlled study, recruited 30 healthy female subjects who consumed 6 milligrams of oral astaxanthin and 2 milliliter topical application per day for eight weeks. After eight weeks, there were significant improvements in skin wrinkles, age spot size, elasticity, and skin texture. The second study was a randomized double-blind placebo controlled study involving 36 healthy male volunteers for 6 weeks, following the same protocol as above, but no parameters were able to reach significance.[10]

Eye Health: Studies done in Japan suggested that astaxanthin might improve many aspects of eye health, including macular degeneration.[11] Follow up studies have suggested astaxanthin, used in combination with other antioxidants, may forestall, or repair macular degeneration.

  • In a large open-label randomized study (N=145) study, patients were randomized to two groups, supplemented with either a 10 milligram lutein, 1 milligram zeaxanthin, and 4 milligram astaxanthin combination along with a multivitamin, or no supplementation. After two years, patients treated with the supplemental mixture reported clinically meaningful stabilization or improvement in visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and visual function compared to the non-treated subjects.[12]
  • Patients with early age-related macular degeneration were supplemented with 10 mg/day lutein (n = 27), 20 mg/day lutein (n = 27), 10 mg/day lutein plus 10 mg/day zeaxanthin (n = 27); or placebo (n = 27) for 48 weeks. At the end of the study, the supplemental group significantly improved macular pigment, which plays a causative role in boosting visual function and might prevent the progression of macular degeneration.[13]
  • Patients with non-advanced age-related macular degeneration (N=27) were randomly divided into 2 age-similar groups: 15 patients had oral supplementation of vitamin C (180 mg), vitamin E (30 mg), zinc (22.5 mg), copper (1 mg), lutein (10 mg), zeaxanthin (1 mg), and astaxanthin (4 mg) daily for 12 month. Twelve patients served as a control. The study concluded that a selective dysfunction in the central retina (0 degrees -5 degrees) can be improved by the supplementation with carotenoids and antioxidants.[14]

Brain Health: Antioxidants have long been thought to possess neuroprotective properties. Recent animal and laboratory studies have suggested that astaxanthin can cross the blood brain barrier and may be a useful tool for overall brain health.[15]

  • Animal studies using supplemental astaxanthin was shown to restore measures of antioxidant protection including glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity and increase total antioxidant capacity. It also decreased malondialdehyde, protein carbonylation, and 8-hydroxy-2- deoxyguanosine levels in the brains of aging rats. Additionally, astaxanthin ameliorated histopathological changes in the hippocampus and restored brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels.[16]

Heart Health: Extensive research has been carried out with astaxanthin and its relationship to cardiovascular disease, although all of it (to date) has been animal and laboratory research.[17] The potential benefits of using astaxanthin as a preventative are great, but await further research.

  • A review of astaxanthin for use in cardiovascular disease showed some promise. All studies in the review were animal and many used the intravenous synthetic form of astaxanthin (Disodium disuccinate astaxanthin, or DDA). Results suggest a role for the use of astaxanthin in cardiovascular disease with improvements in ischemia-reperfusion models, reductions in myocardial infarct size, as well as reduction in blood pressure and ischemic brain injury.[18]

Cautions

The safety of astaxanthin as a supplement has been assessed in a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial of 35 healthy adults. No significant differences in blood pressure or blood chemistries between the treatment and the placebo groups after 8 weeks of supplementation were reported, with the exception of serum calcium, total protein, and eosinophils (P <.01). These differences in these three parameters were statistically significant; they were slight and of no clinical importance.[19]

References

 

[1] Kistler A, Liechti H, Pichard L, Wolz E, et al. Metabolism and CYP-inducer properties of astaxanthin in man and primary human hepatocytes. Arch Toxicol. 2002 Jan;75(11-12):665-75. PMID: 11876499.

[2] Coral-Hinostroza GN, Ytrestøyl T, Ruyter B, Bjerkeng B. Plasma appearance of unesterified astaxanthin geometrical E/Z and optical R/S isomers in men given single doses of a mixture of optical 3 and 3’R/S isomers of astaxanthin fatty acyl diesters. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2004 Oct;139(1-3):99-110. PMID: 15556071.

[3] Coral-Hinostroza GN, Ytrestøyl T, Ruyter B, Bjerkeng B. Plasma appearance of unesterified astaxanthin geometrical E/Z and optical R/S isomers in men given single doses of a mixture of optical 3 and 3’R/S isomers of astaxanthin fatty acyl diesters. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol. 2004 Oct;139(1-3):99-110. PMID: 15556071.

[4] Carughi A, Hooper FG. Plasma carotenoid concentrations before and after supplementation with a carotenoid mixture. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994 Apr;59(4):896-9. PMID: 8147336.

[5] Kidd P. Astaxanthin, cell membrane nutrient with diverse clinical benefits and anti-aging potential. Altern Med Rev. 2011 Dec;16(4):355-64. PMID: 22214255.

[6] Yuan JP, Peng J, Yin K, Wang JH. Potential health-promoting effects of astaxanthin: a high-value carotenoid mostly from microalgae. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011 Jan;55(1):150-65.PMID: 21207519.

[7] Hussein G, Sankawa U, Goto H, Matsumoto K, Watanabe H. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid with potential in human health and nutrition. J Nat Prod. 2006 Mar;69(3):443-9. PMID: 16562856.

[8] Choi HD, Kim JH, Chang MJ, Kyu-Youn Y, Shin WG. Effects of astaxanthin on oxidative stress in overweight and obese adults. Phytother Res. 2011 Dec;25(12):1813-8. PMID: 21480416.

[9] Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK, Line LL, Chew BP. Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2010 Mar 5;7:18. PMID: 20205737.

[10] Tominaga K, Hongo N, Karato M, Yamashita E. Cosmetic benefits of astaxanthin on humans subjects. Acta Biochim Pol. 2012;59(1):43-7. Epub 2012 Mar 17. PMID: 22428137.

[11] Yuan JP, Peng J, Yin K, Wang JH. Potential health-promoting effects of astaxanthin: a high-value carotenoid mostly from microalgae. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011 Jan;55(1):150-65. PMID: 21207519.

[12] Piermarocchi S, Saviano S, Parisi V, et al. Carotenoids in Age-related Maculopathy Italian Study (CARMIS): two-year results of a randomized study. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2012 Mar-Apr;22(2):216-25. PMID: 22009916.

[13] Ma L, Yan SF, Huang YM, et al. Effect of lutein and zeaxanthin on macular pigment and visual function in patients with early age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2012 Nov;119(11):2290-7. PMID: 22858124.

[14] Parisi V, Tedeschi M, Gallinaro G, et al. Carotenoids and antioxidants in age-related maculopathy Italian study: multifocal electroretinogram modifications after 1 year. Ophthalmology. 2008 Feb;115(2):324-333.e2. PMID: 17716735.

[15] Liu X, Osawa T. Astaxanthin protects neuronal cells against oxidative damage and is a potent candidate for brain food. Forum Nutr. 2009;61:129-35. PMID: 19367117.

[16] Wu W, Wang X, Xiang Q, et al. Astaxanthin alleviates brain aging in rats by attenuating oxidative stress and increasing BDNF levels. Food Funct. 2014 Jan;5(1):158-66. PMID: 24326685.

[17] Hussein G, Sankawa U, Goto H, Matsumoto K, Watanabe H. Astaxanthin, a carotenoid with potential in human health and nutrition. J Nat Prod. 2006 Mar;69(3):443-9. PMID: 16562856.

[18] Fassett RG, Coombes JS. Astaxanthin, oxidative stress, inflammation and cardiovascular disease. Future Cardiol. 2009 Jul;5(4):333-42. PMID: 19656058.

[19] Spiller GA, Dewell A. Safety of an astaxanthin-rich Haematococcus pluvialis algal extract: a randomized clinical trial. J Med Food. 2003 Spring;6(1):51-6. PMID: 12804020.